Welcome to Newfound Harbor Marine Institute's Eights Annual International Weekend.
 

International Weekend brings together high school students from around the world to learn and discuss global marine-related environmental problems that affect all nations and their people. In Our Eighth International Weekend will focus on five marine-related issues of global significance: 1) nutrient input and general water quality of coastal areas, 2) marine pollution including ocean dumping and accidental spills, 3) marine fisheries, 4) the potential effects of global warming on coastal areas, and 5) coastal development, recreation and tourism.
 

Our goal is to educate participants on these five topics emphasizing observation and examples in the field. Upon arrival, participants will be divided into five groups, each focusing on a single topic. Given our location in the Florida Keys, we will learn some of the biology and ecology of local systems, including mangrove, seagrass and coral reef habitats. Activities will include wading and snorkeling to obtain first-hand experience in these different habitats; these excursions will be both fun and informative. During these field excursions, each group will discuss the biological as well as social background of their topic, first from a regional perspective. This will give all participants common background knowledge from which to develop their own ideas.
 

The field excursions will prepare everyone for one of the highlights of the International Weekend -- a roundtable discussion. At the roundtable, participants will share what they have learned about their individual topics with the remainder of the group, and to discuss possible conflicts and solutions. Time will be set aside beforehand for each group to discuss their issue amongst themselves and prepare for the roundtable discussion. During the roundtable, the floor will be opened for questions and discussion from other participants on each topic. We encourage all participants to offer their own experiences, knowledge and perspective of these issues for a more global view. A primary objective is to focus on different perspectives or 'sides' of each issue and to develop an understanding of different viewpoints.
 

We have enclosed brief summaries of each of the five issues to give you an opportunity to prepare for the weekend. Feel free to investigate and bring this and other information related to these topics if you like. Suggested sources are the world wide web, school and public libraries, and popular newspapers and magazines. Bring plenty of questions with you.
 
 
 

Water Quality and Coastal Areas
 

Background: When people talk of water quality, they are often concerned about the clarity of the water and whether the concentrations of various nutrients are at 'natural' levels. Water clarity is controlled by many factors including the amount of suspended sediments and plankton, particularly planktonic algae or phytoplankton, in the water. Water clarity decreases when fine sediments are introduced into the water column in several ways, including runoff from rivers and streams, runoff directly from the shoreline, and from winds or currents stirring up the bottom. Many waters naturally experience relatively high sediment loads such as near river mouths, and in areas where nutrient-rich waters rise from the depths as upwelling. Many organisms are adapted to waters with high sediment loads such as those found in many mud-flat communities and some estuaries. These natural processes can be supplemented by human activities such as dredging for boat channels in coastal areas, and various land use practices that allow additional sediments to enter freshwater streams and rivers, or coastal waters directly. Excessive sediment in the water can potentially cover and smother organisms, even those that have developed ways to remove moderate amounts. If sediment levels remain high for long periods, it can change the nature of marine communities that are typical of clearer water to those more characteristic of turbid water.
 

Nutrients are held in sediments and are released into the water column when sediments are suspended. Once released, nutrients can be used by marine organisms. Nutrients can also be added to coastal waters by excessive fertilization of farmlands and lawns, and insufficiently treated sewage. Because these nutrients can be transported by streams, rivers and through the groundwater, activities far from the coasts can still have an important impact on marine waters. In most marine waters, phytoplankton populations are limited by nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus, that are essential for growth and reproduction. These are the same nutrients often released into coastal waters in sewage effluent and fertilizers. When a limiting nutrient is introduced into the water, either naturally or by human activities, phytoplankton populations begin to increase. If sufficient nutrients are added, this may lead to a very high concentration of phytoplankton called a bloom. Such high densities of phytoplankton can reduce light levels required by marine plants and algae for photosynthesis, thus reducing their rate of growth, reproduction and survival. Blooms can increase the food of many filter-feeding organisms, such as clams and sponges, but excessive amounts may clog their feeding apparatus. Certain benthic algae that grow on the bottom may also grow vigorously with high nutrients and compete with slower growing organisms such as corals. As with suspended sediments, excessive nutrient levels for long periods of time may change the types of organisms that live in these areas.
 

Issues: In areas with degraded water quality, the source of the sediment or nutrients must be identified before effective action can be taken. This may be difficult, depending on the source involved. For instance, dredging in waters adjacent to coral reefs have smothered reefs with a blanket of sediment. However, hurricanes can also bury reefs, as well as severely damage them with strong currents and waves. Land-use practices such as clear-cutting, strip mining, and some agricultural practices adjacent to rivers or coasts may result in sediment-laden runoff that ultimately impact important marine habitats, such as seagrass beds, coral reefs, mollusk beds or spawning grounds. In many areas of the world, such practices have been regulated so as to minimize detrimental effects on aquatic and marine systems.
 

Nutrient input is perhaps more difficult to address, since it is ultimately dependent on human population growth and coastal development in a given area. Nutrient input can be from point sources or non-point sources. An example of point source pollution may be the discharge of a sewage treatment plant or other industrial or municipal facilities. These sources are relatively easy to regulate since the source and the owners are more likely to be identified. Non-point sources of nutrient input are much more difficult to identify and regulate since there are usually many contributing sources scattered over a large area, and thus many responsible parties. Examples of non-point sources nutrient input are cesspools and other sewage treatment systems of individual homes and businesses, and over-fertilizing lawns, gardens, and farms.
 
 
 

Questions to Ponder:
 

What are sources of suspended sediment and nutrients in your country? What might be done to reduce their input into the environment?
 

If a point source of nutrient input can be identified, should they be regulated and how? Should the owners of the source (such as a business or community) or the government be required to pay for required changes? Would your opinion change if the company or community was legally permitted to discharge sediments or nutrients into the environment?
 
 
 

If a pollution source such as a business is shut down what, if anything, should be done to help displaced workers? Who should pay for this? Should there be incentives for companies and communities to reduce such input and still remain profitable?
 

In non-point source nutrient input, if the polluters are found to be a large part of the population (such as homeowners and small businesses) what should be done?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Marine Pollution - Ocean dumping, spills and ballast water
 

Background: Marine pollution can be defined as any substance or material that does not 'belong' in the marine environment, typically through human activities. While excessive nutrients and sediments discussed above may certainly be considered pollution, large quantities of nutrients and sediments enter the oceans through natural processes and are in fact necessary for marine organisms to survive. For this topic we will concentrate on pollution that is typically perceived to result strictly from human activities.
 

The world's oceans have been a site of dumping for centuries, particularly near coastal cities and directly from boats and ships. Many materials have been dumped into the worlds oceans including household and industrial trash, hospital wastes, debris from buildings and construction sites, and toxic and radioactive materials. Plastic materials are of special concern because they do not breakdown rapidly in ocean waters and may become entangled with marine life and damage or kill many species.
 

There are also many offshore oil drilling operations in the worlds oceans, as well as a means for surface transportation of oil and other minerals. Crude and refined oil products may accidentally be released from these operations into adjacent waters. Petroleum products are toxic and can significantly impact marine life by covering marine organisms and the bottom. In attempting to remove the oil from feathers and fur, many marine birds and mammals, may ingest the oil. Residuals of an oil spill may also become mixed with the sediment, making it more difficult to remove. Another concern is that the vast majority of ships use petroleum products as fuel. So in addition to headline making accidents, fuel leaks from engines or is released when the bilges are flushed during routine shipping operations.
 

Water is commonly used as ballast for stabilization in rough seas. Water is also exchanged to maintain stability when loading and unloading cargo at dock. Water pumped in at port usually contains adult or larval marine organisms. With faster ships, some of these organisms may remain alive in the ballast water until the ship reaches another port. When water is exchanged, the organisms are released into a new habitat. While it is likely that most of the inadvertent introductions do not establish breeding populations, there are many documented cases in which exotic species have established themselves in new areas. Some of these species have enormous impacts on the local marine communities, as well as the local economy. One example is the zebra mussel introduced from European freshwater ports to the Great Lakes, located between the United States and Canada. In the Great Lakes there are no natural predators of the mussel, so the mussel has flourished. As the mussel populations exploded in the Great Lakes, they have altered the local marine communities by filtering out much of the phytoplankton, as well as clogged water intake pipes for municipal and industrial water supplies, costing millions of dollars. Presently there are numerous documented cases of introduced marine species from ballast water exchange.
 

Issues: While it may seem easy to establish a total ban on ocean dumping, human populations produce increasing amounts of waste that must be disposed of safely. Land-based disposal and incineration is certainly the most common form of disposal, but suitable land is becoming more difficult to locate and community pressures to dispose of wastes 'somewhere else' are mounting. Ocean dumping has always been a relatively easy means of disposal because the wastes are out of sight. However, as the amounts of wastes have increased in the oceans, they have become more than just the inconvenience of having trash wash up on the shore. It is becoming more obvious that various wastes, trash and debris significantly harm marine life and pose human health risks for coastal areas. However, a small proportion of large items such as relict ships, old bridges, cars, and tires, may be used as artificial reefs to attract fish and other marine organisms. Some materials are better suited for artificial reefs than others. In fact, the use of some debris for artificial reefs has been criticized as merely an excuse for ocean dumping.
 

Oil exploration and transport has resulted in significant impacts on local marine life. But because of oil's importance in the world's economy, the need to tap the large marine oil deposits and transport oil overseas has stirred considerable controversy in coastal nations. It can be argued that given the large amounts of oil transported and removed from the oceans, large oil spills are relatively rare. Due to air pollution that results from burning fossil fuels, there has been a movement toward more environmentally benign energy sources, though this technology is still far from replacing fossil fuels. Various regulations and restrictions to drilling and overseas transport have been developed and implemented by many nations and the international community. But accidents still occur and some can be locally devastating.
 

As the impacts of exotic species introduced from ballast water are being recognized, restrictions of ballast discharge are rapidly being developed throughout the world. Many ships require water exchange to safely function on the seas, so alternative methods are needed to allow the current fleet of vessels to continue operation while minimizing safety risks and the transfer of species between ports. One option is to flush bilges with sea water to insure freshwater from one port is not released into another freshwater port. Another is to kill organisms living in ballast water before exchange. Other difficulties include training shipping personnel and enforcing new policies. In many areas, exotics have already had a significant impact to local marine communities and economies.
 

Questions to Ponder:
 

Does your country dispose of materials into the oceans? If so, what types of materials and have they caused environmental or health problems?
 

What are alternatives to ocean dumping, and oil drilling and transport, in the marine environment? Are they economically feasible?
 

Has your country been the source, or experienced invasions, of exotic marine organisms due to ballast water flushing? How might introductions be limited in the future?
 

Who should pay for the damage caused by marine pollution, the communities and nations affected, the companies responsible for 'polluting' (which was often legal), or the international community since this is a global problem?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Marine Fisheries
 

Background: Since humans began inhabiting coastal areas, they have used the oceans for a source of food. For our purposes, the term fishery means any population that is taken for human utilization as consumable or trade, including fish, crustaceans (e.g. lobsters, crabs), mollusks (clams, scallops, octopus), sponges, and corals. Originally, subsistence fisheries captured species for consumption by the fishers themselves and their families or tribes. As human populations grew, and trading with other groups became more important, marine species were harvested commercially to trade for other necessary goods and money. Today, commercial fisheries for both consumption (e.g. food, pharmaceuticals, animal feed, souvenirs) and the aquarium trade are important in the economy of many coastal areas. As fishing vessels became larger, offshore populations could be further exploited, such as tuna and squid. In addition to commercial fishing, recreational fishing has evolved into a major economic resource in many areas. Fishing for recreation probably began as coastal and island residents became less dependent on fishing as a livelihood, fishing instead to supplement their food. Out of this grew an important recreational fishing industry as a sector of tourism that in many areas contributes more to the local economy than commercial fishing. In addition to the more traditional consumptive fisheries, fish watching, diving and other non-consumptive forms of exploitation have developed into an economically important sector of the tourism industry.
 

When human populations were relatively small, fishing pressure was typically low compared to the present day and fishery populations were able to tolerate harvest. Such sustainable harvest does not significantly decrease the exploited populations, so the populations are able to tolerate fishing pressure. As human populations grow and demand on the fisheries increase, fishing pressure typically increases. Also, as new fishing techniques and equipment are developed, fishers may become more efficient at catching fish in the same amount of time or effort. As fishing pressure increases over time, the breeding populations or stocks may be reduced to the point that it is too small to maintain itself. Such overexploited stocks are characterized by a decrease in the number of fish caught with a given amount of fishing effort and the average size of the fish gets smaller.
 

Whether a given fishery population can be sustained over the long term or becomes overexploited depends on many variables including the amount of fishing pressure, the efficiency of the gear used, and the biology and ecology of the species. Due to the difficulty of catching large numbers of fish, many ingenious and often destructive fishing methods have been developed around the world. Some of the more familiar are traditional hook-and-line, net and trap fishing. Often less selective methods are used, especially as fish become more difficult to catch; these include trawls, longlines, purse-seines, poisons or explosives. Some of the methods damage the habitat making the area less productive in the future. Also some gear types catch non-targeted species or undersized fish. Such by-catch may severely effect the recovery of fishery populations because it removes the juveniles of the fishery species, and may reduce the prey for the adults.
 

The important biological and ecological factors include 1) the size of the breeding population, 2) the size and age at which individuals start reproducing, 3) the number of offspring produced by each female, 4) the amount of prey available, 5) habitat availability, and 6) whether the new recruits to the population are primarily from the area in question (closed population) or come from other distance populations (open populations). Of course, these biological and ecological characteristics and their importance depend on the species under consideration.
 

Issues: In order to continue harvesting enough fish to survive or stay employed, fishers will often increase their fishing effort by spending more time fishing, and improving fishing methods or gear. As it becomes evident that a given fishery is reaching or exceeding its maximum sustainable harvest, various groups (i.e. tribes, local communities, state and federal agencies, international organizations) have attempted to regulate fishing. Fishing regulations include designated fishing seasons, areas off-limits to fishing (preserves or havens), restrictions on gear type and technique, mesh limitations for nets and traps, minimum and maximum size limits, and catch or bag limits. The most effective regulations take into consideration the biological/ecological characteristics of the population in question, as well as the cultural and economic impact of the fishers and neighboring communities. Herein lies the difficulty of fisheries management; the biological information is often incomplete and difficult to obtain, and regulations may be detrimental to the traditions and economy of a community. The effectiveness of fishery management ranges from outright successes to dismal failures, both in terms of the recovery of the fisheries and the economic hardships endured by the fishers. However, inaction may be just as devastating to the community as well, particularly over the long term.
 
 
 

Questions to Ponder:
 

Are there over-exploited fisheries populations in yours or a neighboring country? What steps have been taken to reduce over-exploitation, and have they been successful?
 

Should certain fishing methods be regulated or banned outright? What happens if this reduces the catch?
 

Since data are not available for the majority of populations or areas that may require some form of regulation, should regulations be developed for the most critical populations, or is it more effective to regulate entire areas or ecosystems?
 

Should fishers that are detrimentally impacted by management policies be compensated? If so, what form does this compensation take and who pays for it?
 

How do managers best enforce regulations, and will the enforcement be effective?
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Global Climate Change and the Oceans
 

Background: The Earth's climate is becoming measurably warmer. Much of the warming is thought to be due to the greenhouse effect in which certain gases in the atmosphere trap heat and reflect it back toward Earth. The most important gases are carbon dioxide and water vapor. Life on Earth would not exist if this greenhouse effect did not exist; the Earth's surface would be too cold. The Earth's temperature and climate are such that liquid water is common and life as we know it depends on liquid water.
 

The Earth's climate has fluctuated greatly over geological time, sometimes being colder or warmer than it is today. The Earth is now experiencing an interglacial period since the end of the last ice age, approximately 10, 000 to 15,000 years ago. During interglacial periods, the relatively warm temperatures cause glaciers and polar ice caps to melt. The resulting liquid water ultimately flows into the oceans causing sea levels to rise. Also, as water warms, it expands as it stores more thermal energy. Thus sea level will rise due to thermal expansion in addition to that caused by melting. Over the past 15,000 years sea level has risen over 100 meters, but only 1.9 meters (about 6 feet) in the past 2000 years.
 

As sea level rises, the shoreline moves further inshore covering coastal areas with water. Shallow marine ecosystems will become deeper, but new habitats will be created as low lying areas are flooded. Coastal areas are the most populated areas of the world because of their access to the oceans' supply of food, transportation, and milder climates. Approximately 1/3 of the world's human population and more than 1/3 of the world's economic infrastructure are concentrated within 1.5 meters (5 feet) above current sea level. With only a modest rise in sea levels over the next 50 to 100 years, coastal communities will either have to move inland or develop some means of keeping ocean waters from encroaching. Some examples of successful dikes and pump systems are found in the Netherlands and Venice, Italy. In many island nations of the tropics, the land is so low that many of these countries are threatened with extermination. In addition to surface flooding of coastal areas, rising sea levels will cause saltwater intrusion of freshwater aquifers impacting the drinking water supplies of many coastal areas.
 

Local and regional climate patterns of coastal areas are greatly affected by ocean currents. Often, coastal areas experience less extremes in temperature than more inland areas because of the moderating effects of the large volumes of ocean water at the coasts. As the oceans warm, current patterns may change and further affect climate. The frequency and intensity of severe storms may also increase since warmer water temperatures are often responsible for hurricane propagation. Such storms cause severe and expensive damage not only to coastal human communities, but dramatically alter shallow marine and coastal ecosystems as well.
 

Also, the severity of climate change will vary considerably from region to region. While sea level rise may be devastating to some areas, it may be advantageous to others. Possible changes in temperature and rainfall patterns will certainly affect areas differently; whether these changes have a positive or negative effect will depend on the type of change, how much of a change will occur, and the preferences of different people. Marine ecosystems will likely change, but at this stage it is difficult to predict with any certainty what these changes will be. For instance, the fossil record suggests that coral reef growth increases during rising sea levels, as long as the rise is not faster than corals can create reef structure. However, coral growth may slow down or stop if water becomes too warm.
 

Issues: While it is apparent that the Earth is becoming measurably warmer, much controversy exists concerning the extent of global change and its effects. Some controversy exists over whether the measurements reflect meaningful changes affecting global climate, though as data accumulate the majority of scientists acknowledge a warming trend.
 

Much of the controversy lies in what the effects will be and what they will mean to different regions and ecosystems. Today's climate models used to predict climate change are much more sophisticated than in the past, and they are continually being updated as new information is collected. But these are only mathematical predictions about complex relationships that are not completely understood. As most people know, weather is difficult to predict accurately, and there is a great deal of variation in weather and climate from region-to-region and year-to-year. It is arguable that long-term weather patterns, i.e. climate, are easier to predict than short-term weather changes. But there is enough uncertainty in predicting weather and climate to make many governments hesitant to develop and enforce expensive regulations concerning something that might happen.
 

Another major part of the controversy is the impact of human activity on global climate change. Even if a warming trend exists and the climate changes, do activities such as burning fossil fuels, cutting and burning forested areas, and releasing certain chemicals into the atmosphere contribute significantly to this warming trend. These activities introduce carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere, which may increase the greenhouse effect and hence global warming. Compared to carbon dioxide being introduced by natural processes such as volcanoes, do humans actually have a significant impact. If so, it is strongly believed that changing such activities will be expensive, but cost estimates vary greatly and the actual economic impacts are highly controversial.
 

Questions to Ponder:
 

What are some possible impacts of global warming on shallow water habitats and deep ocean habitats? For coastal or island human populations.
 

Given the uncertainty that exists in predicting the effects of global climate change, should governments develop and enforce laws restricting the burning of fossil fuels? What is the position of your country's government.
 

What are some potential problems associated with such restrictions?
 

What are changes that ordinary people can make that might affect global climate?
 
 
 

Coastal Development, Recreation and Tourism
 

Background: Over 50% of the world's more than 5.4 billion people currently live within 100 km of the world's coasts. Traditionally, people have settled in the coastal zone because the abundance of food, access to transportation, and the milder climates compared to inland areas. Many people visit coastal areas because of the climate and natural beauty, the many large and exciting coastal cities, and access to the ocean for recreation. Many coastal areas have an increasingly important tourist industry to cater to many visitors. Given the rapid growth of coastal population, many of the natural habitats have been dramatically altered.
 

Such rapid population growth raises many environmental concerns that coastal communities have been struggled with for decades. For instance many coastal wetlands have been filled to build residential, commercial and industrial facilities for the needs of a growing population.

Thought not initially recognized, saltmarshes, mud flats, mangrove forests and swamps provide

Many essential ecological functions such as providing natural water purification and nutrient recycling, habitat for many recreational and commercially-important species, and shoreline protection. Efforts to restore damaged or destroyed wetlands have been only partially successful because of the vast complexity of the interactions among many organisms and the physical environment found in these areas. While research is improving wetland restoration, we still have a long way to go before understanding and creating successful restorations.
 

Many beaches have been developed to house residents and tourists alike. Large housing units such as condominiums have been built too close to the water on beaches. Sandy beaches are constantly shifting and changing due to the tides, waves and currents. Over time, natural forces can wash away much of the beach; buildings once located safely on the water's edge may risk collapse. Coastal engineers have devised jetties, seawalls, and breakwaters to halt beach erosion and protect buildings and property. However, these man-made structures often cause greater erosion further down the coast.
 

Growing population not only require space but produce a wide array of sewage, garbage and other waste products that must be disposed of properly. Many coastal areas are having an increasing difficult time finding environmentally sound and economically realistic solutions for sewage disposal, agricultural and street runoffs, and other point and non-point sources of water pollution. In addition, increased use of the world's coastal resources by residents and visitors can lead to over-exploitation and damage of these resources, making it difficult to sustain the very environment that originally attracted people to these areas.
 

Issues: Communities have traditionally used laws and customs to restrict activities that may harm the environment. Many coastal communities used "taboo" systems to regulate fishing and building in certain locations. Regulations have increased dramatically over the last century the reduce the pace of alterations to the natural environment and to provide for sustainable use of coastal resources. Regulating resource use is highly controversial especially if resources have become limited only recently. People that make their living be developing the land (land owners, builders, real estate agents) may find their livelihoods threatened, just as those involved in harvesting resources (e.g. loggers, fishers, and farmers). Those in the community that rely on these people for their living, such as retailers and other small businesses, are indirectly affected. Other groups may wish to protect environment at nearly any cost, to halt more environmental change and even to restore large areas to their natural state. They argue that environmental quality must be retained and improved in order to live and attract others to the area to maintain economic growth.
 

Coastal zone management attempts to balance the often conflicting needs of the different groups or constituencies living and working in coastal areas. Various local, state, federal and international agencies have been formed to address these problems and many activities have already been regulated. Typically, many agencies must review a given project or activity, then decide whether to approve, modify or prohibit it. Mitigation may be required to help compensate for the damage caused by an activity such as wetland restoration, or purchasing and setting aside another area for preservation. But mitigation is expensive. Mush of the controversy agencies must address comes form balancing how much economic, social, and environmental impact a given project or activity will have. Ideally, the resource is used or the land developed in ways that minimize environmental damage while allowing the individuals or groups to make a living. This ideal is often difficult to find because the importance of these impacts differs among different people.

Other controversies involve the level of government that controls management decisions.

Many prefer local control because people actually using the resources are most familiar with the resources and the needs of the community. Others may prefer higher levels of governmental control because these regulators may be less easily influenced by special interest groups or have perspective of potential problems and solutions. In addition, the rights of individual landowners and citizens must somehow be balanced with the needs of the larger community.
 

While managing current and future resource use is necessary, the ultimate cause of many coastal problems is the large number of people wanting to live and visit these areas. All of the issues outlined here and in other topics are essentially related to human population growth. Though often desirable, limiting population growth and development in any area is difficult.
 

Questions to ponder:
 

Regardless of whether or not you live in a coastal area, many of these same questions must be addressed in all communities. What are some important issues in your community and country? How does your community address these issues?
 

Under what circumstances, if any, should a government agency restrict the use and development of and individual's or company's private property? Does it matter if the laws are made and enforced by local, state, or federal agencies? Why?
 

Do current residents have the right to prevent others from moving into a crowded area? Why or why not?
 
 
 
 
 

What impact should be considered most important when regulating a particular project or activity, environmental, social, or economic impacts? How many opinions concerning their importance differ between different groups of people? How might compromise best be reached with so many different opinions?